Courses Related to Inequality
- SOCL 233 Intro to Social Inequality Difference
- SOCL 241 Marriage and the Family
- SOCL 320 Sociology of Education
- SOCL 333 Race & Racism
- CRIM 323 Gender and Crime
- CRIM 350 Race, Crime, & Criminal Justice
Key Concepts of these courses
- Structural Inequaltiy
- Educational Inequality
- Structural Racism
- Racial bais
- Mass incarceration
- Gender and Punishment
Papers Related to Inequality
Stressors of Female Lawyers
Faith Kelly
Longwood University
CRIM 323: Gender and Crime
Dr. Virginia Beard
December 9, 2022
In the past couple of centuries, there has been a change in how people view what women should and should not be doing with their life. Women have worked their way into professional settings. Women have become more widely accepted in fields that were originally considered masculine however, women still deal with many stressors and conflicts as a result. In many occupational settings, women still encounter resentence and discrimination. There is even a term for the unofficially acknowledged barriers to advancement in certain professions, especially those affecting women. That term is known as the glass ceiling. One of those professions with a glass ceiling is lawyer. Its presence is shown through trends in which constantly reveal the underrepresentation of women in higher executive positions. There are many reasons why the glass ceiling still exists today. In this paper, I will examine certain stressors related to interactions with colleagues, bosses, administration, and outside life that can effects women’s job satisfaction and achievement.69
Stress Related to interactions with Colleagues
There is a massive impact of sexual harassment on women in the legal profession. In an analysis of data from the American Bar association’s national survey of career satisfaction, Lanband and Lentz (1998) found that there was an impact of sexual harassment in the legal profession. They found that nearly two-thirds of female lawyers in private practice reported either having experienced or witnessed sexual harassment from male colleagues or bosses. They also found that those in the profession who had experienced or observed harassment reported feeling less satisfied with their job than those who hadn’t. I believe that coworkers can harass their female count parts in ways that make them unsatisfied with their careers. Markiewicz, D, Devine, I, and Kausilas, D (2000) found that the quality of close male relationships was more associated with the feeling of job satisfaction and success. I think that these factors show that males’ perception of females in their profession can have a lot of impact on how women feel about their job satisfaction, therefore if a female is used to being harassed in an occupational setting could cause women to feel unhappy in that profession.
Stress related to Interaction with administration and evaluation
Laband and Lentz (1993) found that there was no evidence of discrimination against female lawyers in terms of earnings or promotions. However, Kay and Hagan (1995) found that there was a persistent gap in wages earned by men and women and that the gap still exists after taking into account different positions, specializations, and employment settings. Their analysis also found that women are underrepresented in the upper echelons of law firms as partners. It is seen that women still are over-represented in different sectors than men. It is seen that they are over-represented in family law. This respiration of women in lower sectors of law could have an impact on the differentials in earnings of men and women. However, the under-representation of women means that a glass ceiling still exists. A study found that 9 out of 10 women are not where they want to be in their careers. This data explains why more and more women stay at the lowest ranking ladder of prestige in their law careers.
Stress related to Outside life
There is a view that a women’s job is caring for the house and the kids. Over the years this view has changed, however, it can still have an effect on how women view themselves. Women are seen to be underrepresented in the higher echelons of law firms. Korzec (1997) found that Motherhood is still found to be seen as a career cost for women. Even though women have more access to enter the legal profession, success in women’s careers has not equaled that of males. However, Wallace (1999) found that Women’s feelings about their domestic status did not contribute to their feelings of stress-based conflict and also that their additional family roles help reduce their feelings of strain. Wallace (1999) also found that for both male and female lawyers long work hours do not lead to nonwork stressors, because typically lawyers have great control over their scheduling of work and non-work lives. I believe that women are perceived as not being able to handle things like a male can. People think that a women can’t organize their life and “have it all”, when women just like males are human and have a great ability to organize and balance their career and life.
Conclusion
Overall, it can be that sexual harassment and women’s perception in the workplace may contribute to many aspects of a women’s work experience, including productivity rates, turnover, job dissatisfaction, and unemployment. I believe that overall sexual harassment, the glass ceiling, and the second shift are responsible for the underrepresentation of females in higher executive positions in law firms. However, I also believe that women can have a certain perception of what they think they have to do, which is taking on a domestic role in their family. I believe that most women take advantage of their access to a profession in law however stressors from male colleagues and an assumed perception that females belong in a domesticated role instead of being seen as equal to males. Males are not seen as not being good enough fathers when they spend long hours at work, however, females have to feel the stress of others’ opinions on how they focus and organize their lives. I believe that females are seen in lower prestige of law so they aren’t questioned that they are good enough in their non-work lives as well. I think that all the previously mentioned stressors are the causes for the glass ceiling in a professional setting still existing.
Effects of Mass Incarceration
Faith Kelly
Criminal Justice 350: Race, Crime, and Criminal Justice
Dr. Virginia Beard
November 20, 2023
Introduction
In terms of both absolute number and per capita, the United States detains a larger portion of its population than any other nation globally. Although the United States accounts for less than 5% of the world’s total population detains approximately 20% of the worlds prison inmates (Leipold, 2019). These statistics highlights the issue of mass incarceration in the United States. Mass incarceration is characterized by exceptionally high rates of imprisonment, primarily affecting the most marginalized communities (Tucker, 2014). Approximately 1 million out of the total population of 2.3 million in the United States consists of African Americans. The incarceration rate for African Americans is nearly seven times higher than that for white Americans (Tucker, 2014). These ongoing patterns have significant repercussions for Americans, as statistics indicate that one out of every three African American men born can anticipate spending time in prison at some point in their lives (Roberts, 2003). When examining the incarcerated population in the United States, it’s notable that there are 435,500 White men imprisoned compared to 516,000 African American men. Following closely are Hispanics/Latinos, with 308,700 men imprisoned. Despite not being the majority in the overall population, African Americans and Hispanics/Latinos make up the majority within the prison system.
Overrepresentation of Minorities in Mass Incarceration
Minorities are notably overrepresented in mass incarceration, with African American men experiencing a disproportionately high rate of imprisonment, reflecting a broader trend in the criminal justice system. This underscores the issue of race being deeply ingrained in the fundamental principles of United States criminal law. The War on Drugs initiated in the 1980’s and 1990s led to harsher drug-related sentencing laws and mandatory minimum sentences. The War on Drugs has predominantly been fought within communities of color, resulting in a disproportionate number of people of color facing more arrests and severe charges (Tucker, 2014). It is important to note that individuals of color are not any more likely to engage in the use or sale of illegal drugs compared to white individuals, yet they experience a higher rate of arrests (Tucker,2014). Black men are disproportionately sentenced on drug charges at a rate that exceeds 13 times the rate for white men. Consequently, over 50% of those incarcerated for drug sales or possession are individuals of color (Crutchfield, 2015).
The racial disparities within mass incarceration are exacerbated by the disparity in sentence lengths following convictions. Specifically, African American individuals, when convicted, typically receive sentences that are 10% longer than those given to white offenders for similar crimes. Additionally, they are 21% more likely to face mandatory-minimum sentences compared to their white counterparts and are 20% more likely to be sentenced to imprisonment (Tucker, 2014). Another factor contributing to the heightened incarceration among people of color which is the enforcement of “Three Strikes” laws (Tucker, 2014). These laws implemented in certain states have resulted in individuals receiving longer prison sentences for relatively minor repeat offenses. “Three-Strikes” laws can importunately affect minority communities, as they are more likely to have prior convictions due to systemic issues like racial bias in policing and socioeconomic disparities.
Impact of Mass Incarceration on African American Families
Mass incarceration has a profound impact on African American families in the United States. These effects are far-reaching and can be devastating, encompassing various aspects of family life. The incarceration of a parent can disrupt family dynamics and result in the separation of parent from their children. This separation often triggers emotional and psychological challenges for both parents and their children and can contribute to behavioral issues among children. These challenges can lead to children having problems in school, particularly an increased risk for dropping out of school, and instability in their home lives (Hattery, 2014). A loss of a family member to incarceration can also result in a significant reduction in household income and children have an increased risk for poverty (Hattery, 2014). The financial strain arising from parental incarceration can create significant difficulties for single income families to fulfill essential needs like housing, food, and healthcare. As a consequence, approximately 2% of children with incarcerated parents end up in foster care. Many foster care homes face challenges like overcrowding and insufficient funding, and a significant number of these homes consist of single-family units struggling to meet their own financial obligations (Hattery, 2014). The difficulties stemming from having a parent incarcerated generates stress and hardships for children, increasing their vulnerability to becoming involved in the criminal justice system. When a child’s parent is incarcerated, their likelihood of entering the juvenile or adult justice themselves becomes six times higher, contributing to a cycle of incarceration within families (Hattery, 2014).
Impact of Mass Incarceration on African American Communities
Communities tend focus on punitive measures that divert resources away from efforts to address the root causes of crime (Martensen, 2012). Therefore, the high concentration of African Americans in low-come communities focusing on punitive measures contributes to racial and socioeconomic disparities (Crutchfield, 2015). These disparities are characterized by limited access to quality education, healthcare, and job opportunities, as well as systematic poverty which can lead to an increase in crime and arrests. Incarceration also separates individuals who committed crimes from those they are connected to like partners, children, extended family, and any positive networks they had which results in the disruption of family dynamic and created emotional, economic, and social challenges in African American communities. The emotional disruption resulting from imprisonment adversely affects individuals’ mental health, contributing to a rise in mental health disparities within African American communities (Wildeman, 2017). A history of incarceration creates economic challenges in African American communities, primarily due to deeply ingrained institutionalized racism. The persistent impact of institutionalized racism on African Americans is such that, irrespective of their educational attainment or prior felony convictions, they face reduced opportunities for achieving professional status (Cooke, 2005). Moreover, felony convictions further exacerbate this disadvantage. As a consequence, African American communities often find themselves trapped in a cycle of low socioeconomic status, which can lead some individuals to resort to criminal activities in pursuit of the financial means necessary for survival which results in their incarceration.
Impact of African American inmates returning to a Small Number of Communities
Upon their release from prison, many inmates return to the same communities where they previously resided and where they were engaged in criminal activities. Time spent in prison exacerbates the marginalization of these individuals, often leading them to return to familiar communities already burdened by disrupted families and high levels of unemployment (Crutchfield, 2015). As a result, a significant number of released inmates struggle to reintegrate into society, mainly due to the destruction of social networks and social citizenship (Roberts, 2003). Mass incarceration significantly limits the participation of African American communities in the broader political and economic landscape. These limitations dimmish civic engagement within the communities to which former inmates return. This situation is exacerbated by the practices of felon disenfranchisement, exclusion from the labor market, and isolation from civic participation. Felon disenfranchisement, for instance, involves denying the right to vote to individuals with felony convictions, either temporarily or permanently. The concentration of mass incarceration in specific geographic areas results in the disenfranchisement of entire communities, depriving them of political influence and the ability to advocate for systemic changes (Roberts, 2003). The exclusion of these communities from the political process diminishes residents’ sense of social citizenship and their capacity to maintain social order. Additionally, mass incarceration hinders the employment prospects of black communities, as the stigma associated with felony convictions discourages potential employers from hiring former inmates. Many returning individuals also lack the education and skills necessary to compete in the labor market (Roberts, 2003). These challenges contribute to a cycle of homelessness, unemployment, and elevated criminal activity within entire communities.
Conclusion
Inconclusion, mass incarceration has cast a long shadow over African American communities in the United States, profoundly impacting various facets of their lives. The statistics reveal the staggering scale of this issue, with the U.S. imprisoning a disproportionate percentage of its population, particularly affecting marginalized groups. The overrepresentation of African Americans is deeply rooted in systemic racial bias and is exacerbated by policies enacted in the War on Drugs and the “Three Strikes” Laws. Despite no greater likelihood of engaging in drug-related offenses, African Americans face harsher sentences, contributing to the racial disparities within the criminal justice system. The consequences of mass of mass incarceration extend beyond individual experiences, permeating the fabric of African American communities. Families are torn apart, and children are left to grapple with emotional and economic hardships, often leading to a higher risk of involvement in the criminal justice system themselves. The economic challenges stemming from incarceration, coupled with institutionalized racism, hinder professional advancement, and perpetuate cycles of poverty. The destruction of social networks caused by incarceration and the practice of felon disenfranchisement hinder civic engagement, further diminishing social citizenship within African American communities. The labor market exclusion and isolation from civic participation exacerbate economic and social disparities, fostering a cycle of homelessness, joblessness, and criminal activity.
Resources
Cooke, C. L. (2005). Going home: Formerly incarcerated African American men return to
families and communities. Journal of Family Nursing, 11(4), 388-404.
Crutchfield, R. D., & Weeks, G. A. (2015). The Effects of Mass Incarceration on Communities of
Color. Issues in Science and Technology, 32(1), 109-119.
Hattery, A. J., & Smith, E. (2014). Families of incarcerated African American men: The impact
on mothers and children. Journal of Pan African Studies, 7(6), 128-153.
Leipold, A. D. (2019). Is mass incarceration inevitable. Am. Crim. L. Rev., 56, 1579.
Martensen, K. (2012). The price that US minority communities pay: Mass incarceration and the
ideologies that fuel them. Contemporary Justice Review, 15(2), 211-222.
Roberts, D. E. (2003). The social and moral cost of mass incarceration in African American
communities. Stan. L. Rev., 56, 1271.
Tucker Sr, R. B. (2014). The color of mass incarceration. Ethnic Studies Review, 37(1), 135-
149.
Wildeman, C., & Wang, E. A. (2017). Mass incarceration, public health, and widening inequality
in the USA. The Lancet, 389(10077), 1464-1474.
Final Reflection Essay
Faith Kelly
Longwood University
Dr. Carl Riden
Culture can be defined as the beliefs individuals hold about society, and the set norms that guide their behavior. Social identity can be defined as the categories one associates themselves with in relation to groups and/or other individuals of society. Culture and social identity play a big role in surfing this is because throughout history things have been whitewashed and things have been taken mainly only from the perspective of whites. This happened with surfing when the history was not written by natives of the culture but by whites who said that they discovered it. This overtime has affected how people view surfing and surfing culture because it changed how people viewed surfing and its meaning to their overall social identity. The culture of surfing has changed from being rooted in Hawaiian culture to being pop culture and having a global following. This is because history has been skewed overtime. Whites over time have rewritten this history therefore overall leaving out the history of the original Hawaiian surfing culture and changing it to a sort of tourism activity mainly available to whites because of systemic inequalities still perpetuated to this day. These systemic inequalities are perpetuated because of the practices and beliefs of societies social institutions.
Social structure is the unique arrangement of institutions. Social institutions are organizations that have specific roles and expectations which function to meet certain social needs of the society. They establish certain patterns of behaviors. The major types of social institutions are education, the family, economic, religion, and government. All of these institutions difference from each other and provide different needs based on the needs of society.
The social institutions involved in the systemic inequalities of surfing are the government and economic institutions. The government started perpetuating these inequalities due to the Jim crow laws and they continue to have a lastly effect to this day. These Jim Crow laws banned blacks from having access to swimming pools and beaches which in general prevented them from ever having the ability to learn surfing and its culture therefore perpetuating white washing even more. After being banned for 100 years and most of the Hawaiian culture had rewritten therefore being demolished and forgotten they started to promote surfing however since blacks didn’t have access to the areas where is was being promoted it just inspired the people that where around which were white folk.
Interpersonal racism is biases and inequalities that occur when individuals interact with others, and they let their private racial beliefs and perceptions affect their interactions with the public. This type of racism takes place in the form of racial prejudice and/ or bias from one individual against another individual who is considered racially different then themselves. Another type of racism is systemic racism which is the institutionalization of racial discrimination by giving the dominant ethnic group of society access to most of the opportunities and privileges which disproportionately effects all other ethnic groups negatively. This causes there to be many institutionalized inequalities. Institutionalized inequalities are the systemic discriminations that is embedded throughout institutions thorough their processes and practices they continue to reproduce and perpetuate inequalities. Institutions are great perpetuators of inequalities because that are the ones who regulate the access to resources, so they can reproduce their own social patterns and belief systems. Therefore, they can ingrain certain racial attitudes into common culture. They can cause many inequalities some of those being things like racial, gender, health care and social class equalities. When it comes to surfing there are tons of structural inequalities being perpetuated through the continuing of stigmas and prejudice. Whether they be do interpersonal racism of people still holding a dominant belief that apparently culturally blacks aren’t associated with swimming or even the water because of the effects and the beliefs held in the Jim Crow era that still have deeply rooted views that have continued over time overtime. Since the culture of surfing is whitewashed some the interviewees even mentioned that some white people still don’t associate black people with surfing and often say it even though the promoter of surfing would technically identify as black. This is because these vies have embedded themselves and have engrained certain racial attitudes into common culture. These racial attitudes also perpetuate the inequalities not only from an institutional inequality perspective but also from an interpersonal one since people in society often tend to hold on to the longest raining view and a view that usually only has the dominant group of society in mind and tend to let that effect how members of that dominant group treat others of another group publicly. Therefore, most individuals do not even think about how things adversely affects those of other cultures and ethnic groups