UE1
Originally, I had 2 sources from the coursework cited, and I needed four, so I went back to previous readings and lectures and added a few more sentences about Martineau and was able to add a citation there and I also added a citation on Comte that I hadn’t cited properly before. I also hadn’t included Spencer in here at all, so I added a paragraph on Spencer and his sociological contributions. My reference list was also missing, so I added this to the very end of the paper.
- Who were some early figures which helped to establish sociology as a scientific discipline AND what were their contributions to sociology?
Some early figures which helped establish sociology as a scientific discipline are Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, and Harriet Martineau. Auguste Comte was the individual who really coined the term “sociology” (Coser, 2003). His goal was to establish in others, a scientific view of society and the world over a religious view. His aim was to create a naturalistic science of society, which would both explain the past development of mankind and predict its future course. Given what we know about sociological theory, sociological theory is not meant to predict, but Comte’s goal was to answer societal questions through a scientific church-type environment without including religion. Comte saw the benefits of a congregational environment and wanted people to attend this type of gathering, in which to share his scientific ideas and theories on society and the world.
Martineau, similarly, wanted to create a science of society, in what we now call sociology, that would be systematic, grounded in empirical observation, and accessible to the general public, which would allow people to make decisions with an understanding, guided by scientific principles (Lengermann & Niebrugge, 2007). Her writings, although not as supported in her time, allowed the general public to grasp a scientific understanding of society and the world. She, as a woman in this specific time when she created her writings, was not given the credit and had to push her ideas more than a man would have to at this time. She had to prove the legitimacy of her work to other scientific thinkers. This was very similar to DuBois, in the way they both had to prove their findings and the legitimacy of them; whereas, white men of this time had to do no such thing. This, however, paved a way to the development of more sociological concepts such as feminism and discourse of persons.
Herbert Spencer is also a widely acknowledged sociologist who helped to establish sociology as a scientific discipline. Spencer claimed that human societies evolve just like other phenomena, and if plants and animals change over time, then humans must as well. Spencer’s work developed over time; first, claiming that societal evolution is unilinear, and later, claiming it is multilinear. Spencer also developed the sociological concepts of growth, structure, and differentiation. Growth being that societies start small and increase from either increased population or new societal implications. Structure is seen as change that must happen in order for a society to stay viable. Organizations, institutions, and structures must adapt over time. Lastly, Spencer claimed that growth plus structure equals differences among the population, which creates divisions and subdivisions; i.e. differentiated states. This concept lays the groundwork for the concept of Functionalism.
- What is sociological theory?
Sociological theory is a set of ideas, or a “conceptual scheme;” a framework that allows people to interpret, analyze, and make sense of a social reality. Unlike regular theory, which is predictive, sociological theory is meant to provide a paradigm which is supposed to explain a broad phenomena. Sociological theory is more evaluative and critical than the other science theories (Edles & Appelrouth, 2010). It is a way of thinking that provides explanations for human behavior from a particular intellectual standpoint; however, society is ever-changing, and therefore, sociological theories will continue to grow, mature, and shape the way we see society and new social realities. We can; however, use old theories to develop new ones, and use new knowledge and information to extend, modify, and disprove old theories. An example of this is Social Learning Theory, which explains that we learn from what we observe, whether that is from our own behaviors or others’. This theory has expanded over time to explain many things, but as society has changed, more and more circumstances can be analyzed using this theory. Like Wynn states, understanding sociology’s past allows us to understand it in the present (Wynn, 2016).
- What makes sociological theory unique from other scientific theories?
Other scientific theories are predictive and seek to predict phenomena in question, and they try to answer questions about things in existence. For example, the theory on evolution. However, given that society is ever-changing, with sociological theory, we cannot predict what we don’t know. We can only provide a paradigm to explain such broad phenomena in which to analyze as society continues to change. With math and natural sciences, we have logical, mathematical equations in which to answer questions. When someone questions what will hit the ground first, a feather or a coin, given the natural scientific theories we have, physics and math, we can conclude and predict that the coin will hit the ground first. Given sociological theory; however, we can only analyze and take note of how things occur and make assumptions as to why someone or a group of someones acted a certain way in a given circumstance. People begin to ask questions, and therefore, this leads to more answers, but also to more questions. The natural sciences provide us with answers that are definitive like the Laws of Motion or physics, but math can’t answer why someone made a decision based on his or her past, in any given circumstance. This is why sociological theory is unique and different from other, natural scientific theories.
UE2
This UE was rushed originally due to some personal issues I was having. I did not follow the instructions properly. The first one being, I didn’t meet the word count for each of the sections, so I built off of what I had and met the word count. Secondly, I hadn’t cited enough sources, so I added those to the references page. There was some confusion with certain points I made throughout the discussion of DuBois and his contributions; so I built upon the information I had already written down, and I revised what I needed to revise. The original was definitely rushed, and now that I spent more time on this, I’m more confident in my writing and knowledge on the topic.
- What were the major concerns of this theorist? In other words, what were the questions, social issues, or sociological puzzles which appeared to motivate their theoretical interests?
W.E.B. DuBois was majorly concerned with race and how race affected the development of American society and sociology (Edles & Appelrouth, 2010). His general theoretical framework contrasted from his white predecessors and contemporaries because he was the only sociologist at this time to have focused solely on race. Similarly to Martineau in being a part of a social minority, he also had to fight to prove the legitimacy of his claims. He claimed through his research that we need to look at and examine race systematically. He used a racial lens and empirical research to back it up; it was rooted in data and research. These concerns paved the way for his sociological concepts and theories. These include double consciousness, the veil, the color line, the concept of race as being socially constructed, critical theory, and critical race theory.
- What are their key theoretical contributions? Make sure to explain what these contributions are in your own words.
DuBois’ key theoretical contributions, like I stated above, include double consciousness, the veil, the color line, and the concept of race as being socially constructed. He also aided in developing Critical Theory and Critical Race Theory. First, double consciousness, created by DuBois, is the internal conflict between two sides in an oppressive society. This, for DuBois, was being colored, and also being American. It is the notion of African Americans being torn between two identities (Kaufman, 2013). This can be seen in more than African Americans’ lives in today’s society. We can see double consciousness being applied to other minorities like women and members of the LGBT+ community. DuBois only meant it to be applied in terms of race; however this is an example of how theories grow and expand over time. Another theoretical concept DuBois contributed to is the veil, which suggests the sociological distance between those of colored skin and those of white skin; how white people may not see colored people as “truly American.” DuBois claimed this veil was a one way window and being veiled made those who experienced it unable to be seen by others (Wright, 2016). Lastly, according to DuBois, race is a social construction, is made-up throughout society; a way of viewing people, the world, and history. Human invention is used, according to DuBois, to categorize people based on observable differences. This led to scientific racism such as comparing the skull sizes of individuals of different ethnicities in order to scientifically determine the “greater of the species.”
- How are their theoretical contributions still relevant in studying and understanding society today? When addressing this part of the question, make sure to include one or two examples to support your position.
In studying society today, we have these lenses and theories DuBois created and helped initiate during his time; a way to view society with an emphasis on race, which was not emphasized before by other sociologists. Race is still majorly prevalent in today’s society, and we still use these theoretical concepts that DuBois created to analyze the social world as we know it. We now can use his theories and emphasis on race to look at society and study it more. No, we no longer see it in the same way as DuBois once did due to the societal and environmental factors of his time; however, we can use his theories and concepts to analyze and look at the social world. For example, without DuBois’ emphasis on race in society, we probably would focus on implementing more racial equality in schools and in society; we wouldn’t be able to recognize and try to avoid microaggressions in society. We can also apply concepts like double consciousness to more minorities and their lives and the way they hold different identities.
UE3
The revisions I made mainly included clarity and citing my sources. I didn’t cite my sources properly, so I added those into the paper and into the final “works cited” page. Another revision I made involved explaining what I meant by pervious statements I made. For example, I made a comment about how Mills’ experience growing up influenced his theories and the conceptualization of his theories. It was difficult to articulate this because it just made sense in my mind the way it was. I figured giving an example on how if things were different, how he could have conceptualized his theories differently. Same with the social environmental characteristics of his adolescent years.
I chose to focus on C. Wright Mills for this last Unit Essay. Mills was majorly concerned about how dominant institutions in America exercise power, how social sciences should be pursued, and how his theories can be used to help analyze and understand society better. Thus, Mills came up with the sociological concepts of The Power Elite and The Sociological Imagination. Mills was born in the southwest, in Texas, in 1916, so the environmental contexts of where he lived had an impact on his theoretical theories and the development of them. If he had been raised in the north or in the deep south, these theories he developed may have been conceptualized differently. For example, if he were raised in a northern state, he wouldn’t have been as focused on corporations and institutions as much as he was. Texas is all about “the common man” and Mills focused very highly on trying to explain why and how power is exercised through powerful institutions.
His physical environment, and his social environment had a major impact on his theories too. This being said, some of the social contexts include WWI, from 1914-1918, the Prohibition, the invention of the TV and beginning of media as we know it, and WWII and Civil Rights movements. If he had conceptualized his theories in a different time period with different social factors happening, he may have developed them differently. TV was a big factor, especially, that influenced his theories. Television was created initially to be used for news and politicians were able to use this form of media to broadcast views and this must have been influential regarding Mills’ theories. Because of all of these factors, environmental and social, Mills was able to conceptualize theories in order to analyze these issues he witnessed in society.
Mills’ key contributions in order to understand society better are The Power Elite and The Sociological Imagination. The Power Elite argues that power is exercised through the dominant institutions in American society (Reynolds, 1996). These dominant institutions include large incorporations, the military, and the government. Corporations have an interlocking power structure that ultimately keeps the same people in positions of power. The military gives orders and has control over younger and newer soldiers, and the government makes laws and decides how money is allocated. Together, these three form an elite group that accumulates wealth, power, and status or prestige. Mills argues that those with power, the ability to get your way despite opposition, are based on the social networks people accumulate.
The Sociological Imagination, on the other hand, is often referred to as “the Sociological perspective,” or “the Sociological eye.” Mills believed that by developing the Sociological Imagination, “we can better make sense of this world, understand our place in it” (Stein, 2014). At the time, it challenged prevailing practices of sociology. The theory was created to articulate a way of viewing the world: trying to see the links between personal troubles and public issues. The Sociological Imagination allows us to be aware of the social context that constrains the choices people make. The theoretical concept allows us to analyze individual actions and choices largely, in a historical context with noticeable patterns (Mills, 1959). It provides deeper meanings of certain situations and patterns in social life, and it raises awareness that helps promote social change. It is also often utilized by sociologists to see three things: one, the general in the particular, two, the strange in the familiar, and three, interplay of structure and agency.
First, the “general in the particular” concept describes looking for patterns among the behavior of individuals. While, yes, we as individuals make our own choices, certain groups of people tend to make similar choices. Our own choices being the particular, and the patterns of similar choices that a group of people make being the general. The “strange in the familiar” concept describes looking at the normal, everyday features of our lives as if they were not normal or common. It involves active suspension of our normal preconceptions. This theoretical concept is taking a normal aspect of our lives and examining it as if it were new. Lastly, the “interplay of structure and agency” is a concept from Mills, focusing on how the actions and choices of individuals, (agency) are shaped and constrained by the social relationships in which they find themselves (structure). Personal troubles (agency) are actually related to and interact with public issues (structure). Mills argues that while this seems entirely individual, it is constrained by a number of social structures depending on the scenario.
When analyzing Mills’ and his theories, we see them having contributions to today’s society. Regarding the “general in the particular” and patterns regarding marriage, it is often a person’s personal decision to get married on the basis of who they love and who they are compatible with; however, the patterns have arisen that people of similar races, similar education levels, and similar ages, tend to marry one another. This is an example of how his theories have lasting contributions to society. The general patterns are all parts of the general and the decision to marry is the particular. These patterns or, “generals,” do not apply to everyone though. Some people may marry outside the general lines of age parameters or outside of their own education level, but for the most part, we see people marrying within these lines. Another example of Mills’ work, regarding the “strange in the familiar,” is when college students that don’t have assigned seating, sit in the same seats during every class, or when everyone faces the doors when standing on an elevator. We go through everyday life and we don’t see the troubles and links between personal scenarios and public issues. With Mills’ work, however, we can better analyze society.
WORKS CITED
Coser, L.A. 1977. Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context, 2nd edition. Waveland Press, Inc: Illinois.
Edles, L.D., & Appelrouth, S. 2010 (3rd ed.), Sociological Theory in the Classical Era
Kaufman, P. (2013, September 12). When men get all the credit: Gender and the construction of knowledge. Everyday Sociology Blog. Retrieved April 29, 2023, from https://www.everydaysociologyblog.com/2013/09/when-men-get-all-the-credit-gender-and-the-construction-of-knowledge.html
Lengermann, P. M., & Niebrugge, G. (2007). Ch. 1. In The women founders: Sociology and social theory. essay, Waveland press.
Mills, C., 1959. The sociological imagination. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 1-10
Reynolds, H. T. (1996). The Power Elite. The Social Studies Help Center. Retrieved April 29, 2023, from http://www.socialstudieshelp.com/apgov_power_elite.htm
Stein, A. (2014, February 19). C. Wright Mills, Public Sociologist. Everyday Sociology Blog. Retrieved April 29, 2023, from https://www.everydaysociologyblog.com/2014/02/c-wrightmills-public-sociologist.html
Wright, E. (2016, February 3). Berkeley Journal of Sociology. W. E. B. Du Bois and the Atlanta Sociological Laboratory. Retrieved April 29, 2023, from https://berkeleyjournal.org/2016/02/03/w-e-b-du-bois-and-the-atlanta-sociological-laboratory/
Wynn, J. (2016, February 5). The dead white guys of theory? Everyday Sociology Blog. Retrieved January 31, 2023, from https://www.everydaysociologyblog.com/2016/02/the-dead-white-guys-of-theory.html