Symbolic interactionism is a “sociological perspective emphasizing society and social life as an ongoing process wherein individuals continuously exchange and interpret symbols” (Dillon, 2020). It is also a micro-level theoretical perspective that addresses the manner in which individuals create and maintain society through face-to-face, repeated, meaningful interactions (Carter & Fuller, 2015). Symbolic in the phrase symbolic interaction refers to the foundations of human group life. The word interaction refers to the fact that people do not act toward one another, but interact with each other. By using the term interaction Symbolic Interactionists commit themselves to the study and analysis of the developmental course of action that occurs when people with agency join their individual lines of action together into joint action (Denzin, 2004). Symbolic Interactionism claims that facts are based on and directed by symbols. The foundation of this theory is meaning. Symbolic interaction examines the meanings emerging from the reciprocal interaction of individuals in a social environment with other individuals (Aksan et al., 2009). When it comes to Symbolic Interactionism, things like greetings or different interactions that have meaning to people are what is important.
Individuals think of life through universal interactions and that it is not just about what is in the brain, but how an individual has been socialized. Individuals look for ongoing exchanges of symbols in interaction. This is so people can process how others are interacting and to determine what is best for individuals. The self-other interpretive process in Symbolic Interactionism is an example of this. Individuals assume what they think others are thinking, like when people use the term “on the same page.” Face to face interactions are one of the most important parts of Symbolic Interactionism. These interactions can be between more than two individuals, but they give individuals the chance to interpret what is going on. Face-to-face interaction is a micro-process that has macro level social implications. Some interactions can have big consequences, good or bad. Theorists like Geroge Mead, Charles Cooley, Herbert Blumer, and Evering Goffman are who set the path for what Symbolic Interactionism is by explaining what the “I” and “Me” are through the self and other interactions.
George Herbert Mead is seen as the creator or father of Symbolic Interactionism. Mead studied at a Congresionalist institution where he studied classics and moral philosophy (Dillon, 2020). Mead then moved on to the University of Chicago and was considered a social psychologist. Mead mainly focused on the “self” and what the “self” means in social interactionism. The “self” is active and is always reflexively processing what is going on (Dillon, 2020). Individuals are always focused on and engaged with internal conversations and in this process individuals monitor and evaluate the self (Dillon, 2020). The individual takes on the attitudes of others toward him or her (Me). Me is how individuals think others expect them to react. The individual responds or reacts to those attitudes (I). The I is a person’s self concept. The self emerges out of social interactions. Selves can only exist in definite relationships to other selves (Dillon, 2020). The self is maintained through ongoing interaction with others. Self becomes an object to self in the act of mediating self ’s first attitude. Me is symbolic in the sense that it arises when self is both in the attitude of self and in the attitude of others (GILLESPIE, 2005).
Charles Cooley is known most for his theory on the looking glass self. The looking glass self is “self-perception and behavior contingent on out knowing how others would respond toward us” (Dillon, 2020). This means individuals look at themselves through how particular others see them. This is imagined, but this is an interpretive process. With this the self is formed and maintained through ongoing interaction and also imagined interaction (Dillon, 2020).
It is argued that individuals are not born with an already made self. This is because self comes from social interaction. This is what socialization accomplishes. Socialization is the “process by which individuals learn how to be social, how to participate in society, and thus how to use and interpret symbols and language, and interact with others’ ‘ (Dillon, 2020). This starts with the family. Family is the primary group. The family is the first most enduring source of the individual. This lets individuals learn about what’s what in the social environment. This oriented individuals to the expected behavior in particular families as well as what is expected by the generalized other. The generalized other is the community and society in which individuals live (Dillon, 2020). Having different family structures and differences in the individual’s social environment relating to different factors in an individual’s life provide influences and contexts for the development of the self.
Mead is seen as the creator of Symbolic Interactionism, but Herber Blumer was the first to coin the term and now the term is used to describe a distinctive approach to the study of human group life and human conduct (Dillon, 2020). Blumer states that Symbolic Interactionism rests on three premises: humans act toward things on the basis of meanings that the things have for them, the meaning of such things is derived from the social interaction that one has with one’s fellows, and these meanings are handled in and modified through an interpretive process used by the person dealing with the things encountered (Dillon, 2020). Acting toward things on the basis of meanings are cues. Individuals rely on cues to know how to interpret and react to a situation. The interpretive process helps the individual interpret each situation they walk into and understand how each could be very different. The individual uses the cues and meanings to know what to do.
Erving Goffman uses the metaphor of a theatrical performance to elaborate the many elements that come into play with face to face interactions. Because of this, the presentation of self is the performance and there are many actors and props with various stages and settings that play into the performance (Dillon, 2020). The success of any role performance is based on the audience being present and how the individual will respond to the cues and miscues. This is Goffman’s dramaturgical approach to social life (Dillon, 2020). Social behavior is based on role performance. Some roles are formal and some informal. Social roles are socially scripted, not spontaneous or individual creations. Any one individual has to perform many different social roles. Each of these roles typically has different audiences. Self-presentation of different selves or roles to different audiences Individuals act out and enact socially shared expectations that inhere in various and diverse social roles (Dillon, 2020). Role performances must convince the audiences of the appropriateness, the credibility, of our role behavior. Individuals respond appropriately to the cues in any given role-performance situation or social relationship. Effective role performance and self-presentation requires impression management (Dillon, 2020). Goffman argues that the most effective way to ensure a convincing role performance is to influence the definition of the situation (Dillon, 2020). This is critical to successful, smooth role performance.
Actors must put up and maintain the appropriate front while props help establish the definition of the situation. Appearance and manner also matter to the performance. This helps to establish the legitimacy of the interaction or performance (Dillon, 2020).
With this in mind, Goffman states that everyday life is composed of interaction rituals. These are stereotypical, exaggerated ways of behaving, self-presenting, in particular situations (Dillon, 2020). Goffman also wrote about rituals of subordination, these are things like women standing behind their men. They are the behavioral displays that individuals indicate and recognize the difference in the rank of hierarchy (Dillon, 2020). Individuals also recognize the significance of body language. People are constantly emitting non-verbal cues to which others must respond. Individuals are always engaging in impression management. This is symbolic work that people do to orchestrate a good performance in their various roles (Dillon, 2020). There are different stages to an individual’s performance. Front-stage behavior is active creation and maintenance of a particular front. Back-stage behavior is respite behavior from front-stage, but still engaged in role performance. Some individuals are able to blur the between back and front stage which helps reinforce individuality. Some are not able to do this because of the setting they are in. Goffman calls these areas total institutions. They remove the barriers that separate the individual’s everyday functions (Dillon, 2020). All activities are performed in the presence of co-participants and their supervisors. There are still roles to be played and a performance to act out, but there is not much room for individuality in total institutions.
The observations for this portion were done on November 14, 2022 at the Chick-Fil-A near the Longwood Landings. The observer sat in an area where the front counter was visible so the employees and customers could be easily viewed. This was done around lunch time so there was a lot to observe. Most of the time, people were staying to themselves while waiting on their food. Most people were also quiet, even while eating with others.This can relate back to cues. People noticed that others were being quiet and this cued them to do the same. People did not want to seem loud and be the odd ones out in the store. The employees were professional when with the customers. This can be related back to role performance as the employees must convince the audiences of the appropriateness of their role behavior. When the employees were not helping customers, they were talking and joking with one another. This can relate back to social roles. An individual has many roles, like employee or friend, and each role has different expectations. While being professional toward the customer, these people are playing the role of employee and while joking and having fun around the other employees they are filling the role of friend. There was one group that had a rather large order. A few members of this group were waiting at the counter, but after a few minutes of other orders coming out and the members watching other people wait away from the counter the group members sat at their table until their order was called. This goes back to cues as well. The group members saw how others were waiting and were cued to do the same so they did not stick out. These observations show how Symbolic Interactionism can be seen in everyday life, even on a college campus.
References
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Denzin, N. K. (2004). Symbolic interactionism. A companion to qualitative research, 81-87.
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